Difference between revisions of "Chapter 8: Software Engineering Process"
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software processes. | software processes. | ||
}} | }} | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[File:software-engineering-process.jpg|thumb|400px|frame|Figure 8.1: Breakdown of Topics for the Software Engineering Process KA]] | ||
{{IntroSection|title=Breakdown of Topics for Software Engineering Process|body= | {{IntroSection|title=Breakdown of Topics for Software Engineering Process|body= | ||
As illustrated in Figure 8.1, this KA is concerned | As illustrated in Figure 8.1, this KA is concerned | ||
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== Software Process Definition == | == Software Process Definition == | ||
− | + | {{RightSection|{{referenceLink|number=1|parts=p177}} {{referenceLink|number=2|parts=p295}} {{referenceLink|number=3|parts=p28-29, p36, c5}} | |
+ | }} | ||
This topic is concerned with a definition of software | This topic is concerned with a definition of software | ||
process, software process management, and | process, software process management, and | ||
software process infrastructure. | software process infrastructure. | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[File:software-process-elements.jpg|thumb|400px|frame|Figure 8.2: Elements of a Software Process]] | ||
As stated above, a software process is a set of | As stated above, a software process is a set of | ||
Line 154: | Line 159: | ||
=== Software Process Management === | === Software Process Management === | ||
− | + | {{RightSection|{{referenceLink|number=3|parts=s26.1}} {{referenceLink|number=4|parts=p453-454}} | |
+ | }} | ||
Two objectives of software process management | Two objectives of software process management | ||
are to realize the efficiency and effectiveness that | are to realize the efficiency and effectiveness that | ||
Line 195: | Line 201: | ||
=== Software Process Infrastructure === | === Software Process Infrastructure === | ||
− | + | {{RightSection|{{referenceLink|number=2|parts=p183,p186}} {{referenceLink|number=4|parts=p437-438}} | |
+ | }} | ||
Establishing, implementing, and managing software | Establishing, implementing, and managing software | ||
processes and software life cycle models | processes and software life cycle models | ||
Line 241: | Line 248: | ||
== Software Life Cycles == | == Software Life Cycles == | ||
− | + | {{RightSection|{{referenceLink|number=1|parts=c2}} {{referenceLink|number=2|parts=p190}} | |
+ | }} | ||
This topic addresses categories of software processes, | This topic addresses categories of software processes, | ||
software life cycle models, software | software life cycle models, software | ||
Line 297: | Line 305: | ||
=== Categories of Software Processes === | === Categories of Software Processes === | ||
− | + | {{RightSection|{{referenceLink|number=1|parts=Preface}} {{referenceLink|number=2|parts=p294-295}} {{referenceLink|number=3|parts=c22-c24}} | |
+ | }} | ||
Many distinct software processes have been | Many distinct software processes have been | ||
defined for use in the various parts of the software | defined for use in the various parts of the software | ||
Line 333: | Line 342: | ||
=== Software Life Cycle Models === | === Software Life Cycle Models === | ||
− | + | {{RightSection|{{referenceLink|number=1|parts=c2}} {{referenceLink|number=2|parts=s3.2}} {{referenceLink|number=3|parts=s2.1}}{{referenceLink|number=5}} | |
+ | }} | ||
The intangible and malleable nature of software | The intangible and malleable nature of software | ||
permits a wide variety of software development | permits a wide variety of software development | ||
Line 398: | Line 408: | ||
=== Software Process Adaptation === | === Software Process Adaptation === | ||
− | + | {{RightSection|{{referenceLink|number=1|parts=s2.7}} {{referenceLink|number=2|parts=p51}} | |
+ | }} | ||
Predefined SDLCs, SPLCs, and individual software | Predefined SDLCs, SPLCs, and individual software | ||
processes often need to be adapted (or | processes often need to be adapted (or | ||
Line 419: | Line 430: | ||
=== Practical Considerations === | === Practical Considerations === | ||
− | + | {{RightSection|{{referenceLink|number=2|parts=p188-190}} | |
+ | }} | ||
In practice, software processes and activities are | In practice, software processes and activities are | ||
often interleaved, overlapped, and applied concurrently. | often interleaved, overlapped, and applied concurrently. | ||
Line 448: | Line 460: | ||
== Software Process Assessment and Improvement == | == Software Process Assessment and Improvement == | ||
− | + | {{RightSection|{{referenceLink|number=2|parts=p188, p194}} {{referenceLink|number=3|parts=c26}} {{referenceLink|number=4|parts=p397, c15}} | |
+ | }} | ||
This topic addresses software process assessment | This topic addresses software process assessment | ||
models, software process assessment methods, | models, software process assessment methods, | ||
Line 508: | Line 521: | ||
=== Software Process Assessment Models === | === Software Process Assessment Models === | ||
− | + | {{RightSection|{{referenceLink|number=2|parts=s4.5, s4.6}} {{referenceLink|number=3|parts=s26.5}} {{referenceLink|number=4|parts=p44-48}} | |
+ | }} | ||
Software process assessment models typically | Software process assessment models typically | ||
include assessment criteria for software processes | include assessment criteria for software processes | ||
Line 519: | Line 533: | ||
=== Software Process Assessment Methods === | === Software Process Assessment Methods === | ||
− | + | {{RightSection|{{referenceLink|number=1|parts=p322-331}} {{referenceLink|number=3|parts=s26.3}} {{referenceLink|number=4|parts=p44-48, s16.4}}{{referenceLink|number=6}} | |
+ | }} | ||
A software process assessment method can be | A software process assessment method can be | ||
qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative assessments | qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative assessments | ||
Line 567: | Line 582: | ||
value. | value. | ||
− | === Software Process Improvement | + | === Software Process Improvement Models === |
− | + | {{RightSection|{{referenceLink|number=2|parts=p187-188}} {{referenceLink|number=3|parts=s26.5}} {{referenceLink|number=4|parts=s2.7}} | |
+ | }} | ||
Software process improvement models emphasize | Software process improvement models emphasize | ||
iterative cycles of continuous improvement. | iterative cycles of continuous improvement. | ||
Line 588: | Line 604: | ||
=== Continuous and Staged Software Process Ratings === | === Continuous and Staged Software Process Ratings === | ||
− | + | {{RightSection|{{referenceLink|number=1|parts=p28-34}} {{referenceLink|number=3|parts=s26.5}} {{referenceLink|number=4|parts=p39-45}} | |
+ | }} | ||
Software process capability and software process | Software process capability and software process | ||
maturity are typically rated using five or six levels | maturity are typically rated using five or six levels | ||
Line 680: | Line 697: | ||
== Software Measurement == | == Software Measurement == | ||
+ | {{RightSection|{{referenceLink|number=3|parts=s26.2}} {{referenceLink|number=4|parts=s18.1.1}} | ||
+ | }} | ||
+ | This topic addresses software process and product | ||
+ | measurement, quality of measurement results, | ||
+ | software information models, and software process | ||
+ | measurement techniques (see Measurement | ||
+ | in the Engineering Foundations KA). | ||
+ | |||
+ | Before a new process is implemented or a current | ||
+ | process is modified, measurement results for | ||
+ | the current situation should be obtained to provide | ||
+ | a baseline for comparison between the current | ||
+ | situation and the new situation. For example, | ||
+ | before introducing the software inspection | ||
+ | process, effort required to fix defects discovered | ||
+ | by testing should be measured. Following an initial | ||
+ | start-up period after the inspection process | ||
+ | is introduced, the combined effort of inspection | ||
+ | plus testing can be compared to the previous | ||
+ | amount of effort required for testing alone. Similar | ||
+ | considerations apply if a process is changed. | ||
=== Software Process and Product Measurement === | === Software Process and Product Measurement === | ||
+ | {{RightSection|{{referenceLink|number=1|parts=s6.3, p273}} {{referenceLink|number=3|parts=s26.2, p638}} | ||
+ | }} | ||
+ | Software process and product measurement are | ||
+ | concerned with determining the efficiency and | ||
+ | effectiveness of a software process, activity, or | ||
+ | task. The ''efficiency'' of a software process, activity, | ||
+ | or task is the ratio of resources actually consumed | ||
+ | to resources expected or desired to be consumed | ||
+ | in accomplishing a software process, activity, or | ||
+ | task (see Efficiency in the Software Engineering | ||
+ | Economics KA). Effort (or equivalent cost) is the | ||
+ | primary measure of resources for most software | ||
+ | processes, activities, and tasks; it is measured in | ||
+ | units such as person-hours, person-days, staffweeks, | ||
+ | or staff-months of effort or in equivalent | ||
+ | monetary units—such as euros or dollars. | ||
+ | |||
+ | ''Effectiveness'' is the ratio of actual output to | ||
+ | expected output produced by a software process, | ||
+ | activity, or task; for example, actual number of | ||
+ | defects detected and corrected during software | ||
+ | testing to expected number of defects to be | ||
+ | detected and corrected—perhaps based on historical | ||
+ | data for similar projects (see Effectiveness | ||
+ | in the Software Engineering Economics KA). | ||
+ | Note that measurement of software process effectiveness | ||
+ | requires measurement of the relevant | ||
+ | product attributes; for example, measurement of | ||
+ | software defects discovered and corrected during | ||
+ | software testing. | ||
+ | |||
+ | One must take care when measuring product | ||
+ | attributes for the purpose of determining process | ||
+ | effectiveness. For example, the number of defects | ||
+ | detected and corrected by testing may not achieve | ||
+ | the expected number of defects and thus provide | ||
+ | a misleadingly low effectiveness measure, either | ||
+ | because the software being tested is of betterthan- | ||
+ | usual quality or perhaps because introduction | ||
+ | of a newly introduced upstream inspection | ||
+ | process has reduced the remaining number of | ||
+ | defects in the software. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Product measures that may be important in | ||
+ | determining the effectiveness of software processes | ||
+ | include product complexity, total defects, | ||
+ | defect density, and the quality of requirements, | ||
+ | design documentation, and other related work | ||
+ | products. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Also note that efficiency and effectiveness are | ||
+ | independent concepts. An effective software process | ||
+ | can be inefficient in achieving a desired software | ||
+ | process result; for example, the amount of | ||
+ | effort expended to find and fix software defects | ||
+ | could be very high and result in low efficiency, as | ||
+ | compared to expectations. | ||
+ | |||
+ | An efficient process can be ineffective in accomplishing | ||
+ | the desired transformation of input work | ||
+ | products into output work products; for example, | ||
+ | failure to find and correct a sufficient number of | ||
+ | software defects during the testing process. | ||
+ | Causes of low efficiency and/or low effectiveness | ||
+ | in the way a software process, activity, or | ||
+ | task is executed might include one or more of the | ||
+ | following problems: deficient input work products, | ||
+ | inexperienced personnel, lack of adequate | ||
+ | tools and infrastructure, learning a new process, | ||
+ | a complex product, or an unfamiliar product | ||
+ | domain. The efficiency and effectiveness of software | ||
+ | process execution are also affected (either | ||
+ | positively or negatively) by factors such as turnover | ||
+ | in software personnel, schedule changes, a | ||
+ | new customer representative, or a new organizational | ||
+ | policy. | ||
+ | |||
+ | In software engineering, productivity in performing | ||
+ | a process, activity, or task is the ratio of | ||
+ | output produced divided by resources consumed; | ||
+ | for example, the number of software defects discovered | ||
+ | and corrected divided by person-hours of | ||
+ | effort (see Productivity in the Software Engineering | ||
+ | Economics KA). Accurate measurement of | ||
+ | productivity must include total effort used to satisfy | ||
+ | the exit criteria of a software process, activity, | ||
+ | or task; for example, the effort required to | ||
+ | correct defects discovered during software testing | ||
+ | must be included in software development | ||
+ | productivity. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Calculation of productivity must account for | ||
+ | the context in which the work is accomplished. | ||
+ | For example, the effort to correct discovered | ||
+ | defects will be included in the productivity calculation | ||
+ | of a software team if team members | ||
+ | correct the defects they find—as in unit testing | ||
+ | by software developers or in a cross-functional | ||
+ | agile team. Or the productivity calculation | ||
+ | may include either the effort of the software | ||
+ | developers or the effort of an independent testing | ||
+ | team, depending on who fixes the defects | ||
+ | found by the independent testers. Note that this | ||
+ | example refers to the effort of teams of developers | ||
+ | or teams of testers and not to individuals. | ||
+ | Software productivity calculated at the level of | ||
+ | individuals can be misleading because of the | ||
+ | many factors that can affect the individual productivity | ||
+ | of software engineers. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Standardized definitions and counting rules | ||
+ | for measurement of software processes and work | ||
+ | products are necessary to provide standardized | ||
+ | measurement results across projects within an | ||
+ | organization, to populate a repository of historical | ||
+ | data that can be analyzed to identify software | ||
+ | processes that need to be improved, and to build | ||
+ | predictive models based on accumulated data. In | ||
+ | the example above, definitions of software defects | ||
+ | and staff-hours of testing effort plus counting | ||
+ | rules for defects and effort would be necessary to | ||
+ | obtain satisfactory measurement results. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The extent to which the software process is | ||
+ | institutionalized is important; failure to institutionalize | ||
+ | a software process may explain why | ||
+ | “good” software processes do not always produce | ||
+ | anticipated results. Software processes may | ||
+ | be institutionalized by adoption within the local | ||
+ | organizational unit or across larger units of an | ||
+ | enterprise. | ||
=== Quality of Measurement Results === | === Quality of Measurement Results === | ||
+ | {{RightSection|{{referenceLink|number=4|parts=s3.4-3.7}} | ||
+ | }} | ||
+ | The quality of process and product measurement | ||
+ | results is primarily determined by the reliability | ||
+ | and validity of the measured results. Measurements | ||
+ | that do not satisfy these quality criteria | ||
+ | can result in incorrect interpretations and faulty | ||
+ | software process improvement initiatives. Other | ||
+ | desirable properties of software measurements | ||
+ | include ease of collection, analysis, and presentation | ||
+ | plus a strong correlation between cause and | ||
+ | effect. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The Software Engineering Measurement topic | ||
+ | in the Software Engineering Management KA | ||
+ | describes a process for implementing a software | ||
+ | measurement program. | ||
=== Software Information Models === | === Software Information Models === | ||
+ | {{RightSection|{{referenceLink|number=1|parts=p310-311}} {{referenceLink|number=3|parts=p712-713}} {{referenceLink|number=4|parts=s19.2}} | ||
+ | }} | ||
+ | Software information models allow modeling, | ||
+ | analysis, and prediction of software process and | ||
+ | software product attributes to provide answers to | ||
+ | relevant questions and achieve process and product | ||
+ | improvement goals. Needed data can be collected | ||
+ | and retained in a repository; the data can be analyzed | ||
+ | and models can be constructed. Validation | ||
+ | and refinement of software information models | ||
+ | occur during software projects and after projects | ||
+ | are completed to ensure that the level of accuracy | ||
+ | is sufficient and that their limitations are known | ||
+ | and understood. Software information models may | ||
+ | also be developed for contexts other than software | ||
+ | projects; for example, a software information | ||
+ | model might be developed for processes that apply | ||
+ | across an organization, such as software configuration | ||
+ | management or software quality assurance | ||
+ | processes at the organizational level. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Analysis-driven software information model | ||
+ | building involves the development, calibration, | ||
+ | and evaluation of a model. A software information | ||
+ | model is developed by establishing a | ||
+ | hypothesized transformation of input variables | ||
+ | into desired outputs; for example, product size | ||
+ | and complexity might be transformed into estimated | ||
+ | effort needed to develop a software product | ||
+ | using a regression equation developed from | ||
+ | observed data from past projects. A model is | ||
+ | calibrated by adjusting parameters in the model | ||
+ | to match observed results from past projects; for | ||
+ | example, the exponent in a nonlinear regression | ||
+ | model might be changed by applying the regression | ||
+ | equation to a different set of past projects | ||
+ | other than the projects used to develop the model. | ||
+ | A model is evaluated by comparing computed | ||
+ | results to actual outcomes for a different set of | ||
+ | similar data. There are three possible evaluation | ||
+ | outcomes: | ||
+ | |||
+ | # results computed for a different data set vary widely from actual outcomes for that data set, in which case the derived model is not applicable for the new data set and should not be applied to analyze or make predictions | ||
+ | for future projects; | ||
+ | # results computed for a new data set are close to actual outcomes for that data set, in which case minor adjustments are made to the parameters of the model to improve agreement; | ||
+ | # results computed for the new data set and subsequent data sets are very close and no adjustments to the model are needed. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Continuous evaluation of the model may indicate | ||
+ | a need for adjustments over time as the context | ||
+ | in which the model is applied changes. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The Goals/Questions/Metrics (GQM) method | ||
+ | was originally intended for establishing measurement | ||
+ | activities, but it can also be used to guide | ||
+ | analysis and improvement of software processes. | ||
+ | |||
+ | It can be used to guide analysis-driven software | ||
+ | information model building; results obtained | ||
+ | from the software information model can be used | ||
+ | to guide process improvement. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The following example illustrates application | ||
+ | of the GQM method: | ||
+ | |||
+ | * Goal: Reduce the average change request processing time by 10% within six months. | ||
+ | * Question 1-1: What is the baseline change request processing time? | ||
+ | * Metric 1-1-1: Average of change request processing times on starting date | ||
+ | * Metric 1-1-2: Standard deviation of change request processing times on starting date | ||
+ | * Question 1-2: What is the current change request processing time? | ||
+ | * Metric 1-2-1: Average of change request processing times currently | ||
+ | * Metric 1-2-2: Standard deviation of change request processing times currently | ||
=== Software Process Measurement Techniques === | === Software Process Measurement Techniques === | ||
+ | {{RightSection|{{referenceLink|number=1|parts=c8}} | ||
+ | }} | ||
+ | Software process measurement techniques are | ||
+ | used to collect process data and work product | ||
+ | data, transform the data into useful information, | ||
+ | and analyze the information to identify process | ||
+ | activities that are candidates for improvement. | ||
+ | In some cases, new software processes may be | ||
+ | needed. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Process measurement techniques also provide | ||
+ | the information needed to measure the effects of | ||
+ | process improvement initiatives. Process measurement | ||
+ | techniques can be used to collect both | ||
+ | quantitative and qualitative data. | ||
==== Quantitative Process Measurement Techniques ==== | ==== Quantitative Process Measurement Techniques ==== | ||
+ | {{RightSection|{{referenceLink|number=4|parts=s5.1, s5.7, s9.8}} | ||
+ | }} | ||
+ | The purpose of quantitative process measurement | ||
+ | techniques is to collect, transform, and analyze | ||
+ | quantitative process and work product data that | ||
+ | can be used to indicate where process improvements | ||
+ | are needed and to assess the results of | ||
+ | process improvement initiatives. Quantitative | ||
+ | process measurement techniques are used to collect | ||
+ | and analyze data in numerical form to which | ||
+ | mathematical and statistical techniques can be | ||
+ | applied. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Quantitative process data can be collected as | ||
+ | a byproduct of software processes. For example, | ||
+ | the number of defects discovered during software | ||
+ | testing and the staff-hours expended can be collected | ||
+ | by direct measurement, and the productivity | ||
+ | of defect discovery can be derived by calculating | ||
+ | defects discovered per staff-hour. | ||
+ | Basic tools for quality control can be used to | ||
+ | analyze quantitative process measurement data | ||
+ | (e.g., check sheets, Pareto diagrams, histograms, | ||
+ | scatter diagrams, run charts, control charts, and | ||
+ | cause-and-effect diagrams) (see Root Cause | ||
+ | Analysis in the Engineering Foundations KA). In | ||
+ | addition, various statistical techniques can be used | ||
+ | that range from calculation of medians and means | ||
+ | to multivariate analysis methods (see Statistical | ||
+ | Analysis in the Engineering Foundations KA). | ||
+ | Data collected using quantitative process measurement | ||
+ | techniques can also be used as inputs | ||
+ | to simulation models (see Modeling, Prototyping, | ||
+ | and Simulation in the Engineering Foundations | ||
+ | KA); these models can be used to assess the | ||
+ | impact of various approaches to software process | ||
+ | improvement. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Orthogonal Defect Classification (ODC) can | ||
+ | be used to analyze quantitative process measurement | ||
+ | data. ODC can be used to group detected | ||
+ | defects into categories and link the defects in | ||
+ | each category to the software process or software | ||
+ | processes where a group of defects originated | ||
+ | (see Defect Characterization in the Software | ||
+ | Quality KA). Software interface defects, | ||
+ | for example, may have originated during an inadequate | ||
+ | software design process; improving the | ||
+ | software design process will reduce the number | ||
+ | of software interface defects. ODC can provide | ||
+ | quantitative data for applying root cause analysis. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Statistical Process Control can be used to track | ||
+ | process stability, or the lack of process stability, | ||
+ | using control charts. | ||
==== Qualitative Process Measurement Techniques ==== | ==== Qualitative Process Measurement Techniques ==== | ||
+ | {{RightSection|{{referenceLink|number=1|parts=s6.4}} | ||
+ | }} | ||
+ | Qualitative process measurement techniques— | ||
+ | including interviews, questionnaires, and expert | ||
+ | judgment—can be used to augment quantitative | ||
+ | process measurement techniques. Group consensus | ||
+ | techniques, including the Delphi technique, | ||
+ | can be used to obtain consensus among groups of | ||
+ | stakeholders. | ||
== Software Engineering Process Tools == | == Software Engineering Process Tools == | ||
+ | {{RightSection|{{referenceLink|number=1|parts=s8.7}}}} | ||
+ | Software process tools support many of the notations | ||
+ | used to define, implement, and manage | ||
+ | individual software processes and software life | ||
+ | cycle models. They include editors for notations | ||
+ | such as data-flow diagrams, state charts, BPMN, | ||
+ | IDEF0 diagrams, Petri nets, and UML activity | ||
+ | diagrams. In some cases, software process tools | ||
+ | allow different types of analyses and simulations | ||
+ | (for example, discrete event simulation). In | ||
+ | addition, general purpose business tools, such as | ||
+ | a spreadsheet, may be useful. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Computer-Assisted Software Engineering | ||
+ | (CASE) tools can reinforce the use of integrated | ||
+ | processes, support the execution of process definitions, | ||
+ | and provide guidance to humans in performing | ||
+ | well-defined processes. Simple tools | ||
+ | such as word processors and spreadsheets can | ||
+ | be used to prepare textual descriptions of processes, | ||
+ | activities, and tasks; these tools also support | ||
+ | traceability among the inputs and outputs of | ||
+ | multiple software processes (such as stakeholder | ||
+ | needs analysis, software requirements specification, | ||
+ | software architecture, and software detailed | ||
+ | design) as well as the results of software processes | ||
+ | such as documentation, software components, | ||
+ | test cases, and problem reports. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Most of the knowledge areas in this Guide | ||
+ | describe specialized tools that can be used to | ||
+ | manage the processes within that KA. In particular, | ||
+ | see the Software Configuration Management | ||
+ | KA for a discussion of software configuration | ||
+ | management tools that can be used to manage the | ||
+ | construction, integration, and release processes | ||
+ | for software products. Other tools, such as those | ||
+ | for requirements management and testing, are | ||
+ | described in the appropriate KAs. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Software process tools can support projects | ||
+ | that involve geographically dispersed (virtual) | ||
+ | teams. Increasingly, software process tools are | ||
+ | available through cloud computing facilities as | ||
+ | well as through dedicated infrastructures. | ||
+ | |||
+ | A project control panel or dashboard can display | ||
+ | selected process and product attributes for | ||
+ | software projects and indicate measurements that | ||
+ | are within control limits and those needing corrective | ||
+ | action. | ||
+ | |||
+ | {{EndSection|title=Further Readings|body= | ||
+ | |||
+ | ''Software Extension to the Guide to the Project | ||
+ | Management Body of Knowledge®'' (SWX) | ||
+ | [5]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | SWX provides adaptations and extensions to the | ||
+ | generic practices of project management documented | ||
+ | in the PMBOK® Guide for managing | ||
+ | software projects. The primary contribution of | ||
+ | this extension to the PMBOK® Guide is description | ||
+ | of processes that are applicable for managing | ||
+ | adaptive life cycle software projects. | ||
+ | |||
+ | D. Gibson, D. Goldenson, and K. Kost, | ||
+ | “Performance Results of CMMI-Based | ||
+ | Process Improvement” [6]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | This technical report summarizes publicly available | ||
+ | empirical evidence about the performance | ||
+ | results that can occur as a consequence of CMMIbased | ||
+ | process improvement. The report contains | ||
+ | a series of brief case descriptions that were created | ||
+ | with collaboration from representatives | ||
+ | from 10 organizations that have achieved notable | ||
+ | quantitative performance results through their | ||
+ | CMMI-based improvement efforts. | ||
+ | |||
+ | ''CMMI® for Development, Version 1.3'' [7]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | ''CMMI® for Development, Version 1.3'' provides an | ||
+ | integrated set of process guidelines for developing | ||
+ | and improving products and services. These | ||
+ | guidelines include best practices for developing | ||
+ | and improving products and services to meet the | ||
+ | needs of customers and end users. | ||
+ | |||
+ | ''ISO/IEC 15504-1:2004 Information technology— | ||
+ | Process assessment—Part 1: | ||
+ | Concepts and vocabulary'' [8]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | This standard, commonly known as SPICE | ||
+ | (Software Process Improvement and Capability | ||
+ | Determination), includes multiple parts. Part 1 | ||
+ | provides concepts and vocabulary for software | ||
+ | development processes and related businessmanagement | ||
+ | functions. Other parts of 15504 | ||
+ | define the requirements and procedures for performing | ||
+ | process assessments. | ||
+ | }} | ||
+ | {{EndSection|title=References|body= | ||
+ | {{reference | ||
+ | |number=1 | ||
+ | |author=R.E. Fairley | ||
+ | |article= | ||
+ | |publication=Managing and Leading Software Projects | ||
+ | |edition= | ||
+ | |publisher=Wiley-IEEE Computer Society Press | ||
+ | |issue= | ||
+ | |date=2009 | ||
+ | |part= | ||
+ | |link= | ||
+ | }}{{reference | ||
+ | |number=2 | ||
+ | |author=J.W. Moore | ||
+ | |article= | ||
+ | |publication=The Road Map to Software Engineering: A Standards-Based Guide | ||
+ | |edition= | ||
+ | |publisher=Wiley-IEEE Computer Society Press | ||
+ | |issue= | ||
+ | |date=2006 | ||
+ | |part= | ||
+ | |link= | ||
+ | }}{{reference | ||
+ | |number=3 | ||
+ | |author=I. Sommerville | ||
+ | |article= | ||
+ | |publication=Software Engineering | ||
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+ | |date=2011 | ||
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+ | |link= | ||
+ | }}{{reference | ||
+ | |number=4 | ||
+ | |author=S.H. Kan | ||
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+ | |publisher=Addison-Wesley | ||
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+ | |number=5 | ||
+ | |author=Project Management Institute and IEEE Computer Society | ||
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+ | |number=6 | ||
+ | |author=D. Gibson, D. Goldenson, and K. Kost | ||
+ | |article=Performance Results of CMMI-Based Process Improvement | ||
+ | |publication= | ||
+ | |edition= | ||
+ | |publisher=Software Engineering Institute | ||
+ | |issue= | ||
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+ | |number=7 | ||
+ | |author=CMMI Product Team | ||
+ | |article=CMMI for Development, Version 1.3 | ||
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+ | |publisher=Software Engineering Institute | ||
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+ | }}{{reference | ||
+ | |number=8 | ||
+ | |author= | ||
+ | |article= | ||
+ | |publication=ISO/IEC 15504-1:2004 Information | ||
+ | Technology—Process Assessment—Part 1: | ||
+ | Concepts and Vocabulary | ||
+ | |edition= | ||
+ | |publisher=ISO/IEC | ||
+ | |issue= | ||
+ | |date=2004 | ||
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Latest revision as of 17:14, 25 August 2015
Contents
- BPMN
- Business Process Modeling Notation
- CASE
- Computer-Assisted Software Engineering
- CM
- Configuration Management
- CMMI
- Capability Maturity Model Integration
- GQM
- Goal-Question-Metric
- IDEF0
- Integration Definition
- LOE
- Level of Effort
- ODC
- Orthogonal Defect Classification
- SDLC
- Software Development Life Cycle
- SPLC
- Software Product Life Cycle
- UML
- Unified Modeling Language
An engineering process consists of a set of interrelated activities that transform one or more inputs into outputs while consuming resources to accomplish the transformation. Many of the processes of traditional engineering disciplines (e.g., electrical, mechanical, civil, chemical) are concerned with transforming energy and physical entities from one form into another, as in a hydroelectric dam that transforms potential energy into electrical energy or a petroleum refinery that uses chemical processes to transform crude oil into gasoline.
In this knowledge area (KA), software engineering processes are concerned with work activities accomplished by software engineers to develop, maintain, and operate software, such as requirements, design, construction, testing, configuration management, and other software engineering processes. For readability, “software engineering process” will be referred to as “software process” in this KA. In addition, please note that “software process” denotes work activities—not the execution process for implemented software.
Software processes are specified for a number of reasons: to facilitate human understanding, communication, and coordination; to aid management of software projects; to measure and improve the quality of software products in an efficient manner; to support process improvement; and to provide a basis for automated support of process execution.
SWEBOK KAs closely related to this Software Engineering Process KA include Software Engineering Management, Software Engineering Models and Methods, and Software Quality; the Measurement and Root Cause Analysis topic found in the Engineering Foundations KA is also closely related. Software Engineering Management is concerned with tailoring, adapting, and implementing software processes for a specific software project (see Process Planning in the Software Engineering Management KA). Models and methods support a systematic approach to software development and modification.
The Software Quality KA is concerned with the planning, assurance, and control processes for project and product quality. Measurement and measurement results in the Engineering Foundations KA are essential for evaluating and controlling software processes.
As illustrated in Figure 8.1, this KA is concerned with software process definition, software life cycles, software process assessment and improvement, software measurement, and software engineering process tools.
1 Software Process Definition
This topic is concerned with a definition of software process, software process management, and software process infrastructure.
As stated above, a software process is a set of interrelated activities and tasks that transform input work products into output work products. At minimum, the description of a software process includes required inputs, transforming work activities, and outputs generated. As illustrated in Figure 8.2, a software process may also include its entry and exit criteria and decomposition of the work activities into tasks, which are the smallest units of work subject to management accountability. A process input may be a triggering event or the output of another process. Entry criteria should be satisfied before a process can commence. All specified conditions should be satisfied before a process can be successfully concluded, including the acceptance criteria for the output work product or work products.
A software process may include subprocesses. For example, software requirements validation is a process used to determine whether the requirements will provide an adequate basis for software development; it is a subprocess of the software requirements process. Inputs for requirements validation are typically a software requirements specification and the resources needed to perform validation (personnel, validation tools, sufficient time). The tasks of the requirements validation activity might include requirements reviews, prototyping, and model validation. These tasks involve work assignments for individuals and teams. The output of requirements validation is typically a validated software requirements specification that provides inputs to the software design and software testing processes. Requirements validation and other subprocesses of the software requirements process are often interleaved and iterated in various ways; the software requirements process and its subprocesses may be entered and exited multiple times during software development or modification.
Complete definition of a software process may also include the roles and competencies, IT support, software engineering techniques and tools, and work environment needed to perform the process, as well as the approaches and measures (Key Performance Indicators) used to determine the efficiency and effectiveness of performing the process.
In addition, a software process may include interleaved technical, collaborative, and administrative activities.
Notations for defining software processes include textual lists of constituent activities and tasks described in natural language; data-flow diagrams; state charts; BPMN; IDEF0; Petri nets; and UML activity diagrams. The transforming tasks within a process may be defined as procedures; a procedure may be specified as an ordered set of steps or, alternatively, as a checklist of the work to be accomplished in performing a task.
It must be emphasized that there is no best software process or set of software processes. Software processes must be selected, adapted, and applied as appropriate for each project and each organizational context. No ideal process, or set of processes, exists.
1.1 Software Process Management
Two objectives of software process management are to realize the efficiency and effectiveness that result from a systematic approach to accomplishing software processes and producing work products— be it at the individual, project, or organizational level—and to introduce new or improved processes.
Processes are changed with the expectation that a new or modified process will improve the efficiency and/or effectiveness of the process and the quality of the resulting work products. Changing to a new process, improving an existing process, organizational change, and infrastructure change (technology insertion or changes in tools) are closely related, as all are usually initiated with the goal of improving the cost, development schedule, or quality of the software products. Process change has impacts not only for the software product; they often lead to organizational change. Changing a process or introducing a new process can have ripple effects throughout an organization. For example, changes in IT infrastructure tools and technology often require process changes.
Existing processes may be modified when other new processes are deployed for the first time (for example, introducing an inspection activity within a software development project will likely impact the software testing process— see Reviews and Audits in the Software Quality KA and in the Software Testing KA). These situations can also be termed “process evolution.” If the modifications are extensive, then changes in the organizational culture and business model will likely be necessary to accommodate the process changes.
1.2 Software Process Infrastructure
Establishing, implementing, and managing software processes and software life cycle models often occurs at the level of individual software projects. However, systematic application of software processes and software life cycle models across an organization can provide benefits to all software work within the organization, although it requires commitment at the organizational level. A software process infrastructure can provide process definitions, policies for interpreting and applying the processes, and descriptions of the procedures to be used to implement the processes. Additionally, a software process infrastructure may provide funding, tools, training, and staff members who have been assigned responsibilities for establishing and maintaining the software process infrastructure.
Software process infrastructure varies, depending on the size and complexity of the organization and the projects undertaken within the organization. Small, simple organizations and projects have small, simple infrastructure needs. Large, complex organizations and projects, by necessity, have larger and more complex software process infrastructures. In the latter case, various organizational units may be established (such as a software engineering process group or a steering committee) to oversee implementation and improvement of the software processes.
A common misperception is that establishing a software process infrastructure and implementing repeatable software processes will add time and cost to software development and maintenance. There is a cost associated with introducing or improving a software process; however, experience has shown that implementing systematic improvement of software processes tends to result in lower cost through improved efficiency, avoidance of rework, and more reliable and affordable software. Process performance thus influences software product quality.
2 Software Life Cycles
This topic addresses categories of software processes, software life cycle models, software process adaptation, and practical considerations. A software development life cycle (SDLC) includes the software processes used to specify and transform software requirements into a deliverable software product. A software product life cycle (SPLC) includes a software development life cycle plus additional software processes that provide for deployment, maintenance, support, evolution, retirement, and all other inceptionto- retirement processes for a software product, including the software configuration management and software quality assurance processes that are applied throughout a software product life cycle. A software product life cycle may include multiple software development life cycles for evolving and enhancing the software.
Individual software processes have no temporal ordering among them. The temporal relationships among software processes are provided by a software life cycle model: either an SDLC or SPLC. Life cycle models typically emphasize the key software processes within the model and their temporal and logical interdependencies and relationships. Detailed definitions of the software processes in a life cycle model may be provided directly or by reference to other documents.
In addition to conveying the temporal and logical relationships among software processes, the software development life cycle model (or models used within an organization) includes the control mechanisms for applying entry and exit criteria (e.g., project reviews, customer approvals, software testing, quality thresholds, demonstrations, team consensus). The output of one software process often provides the input for others (e.g., software requirements provide input for a software architectural design process and the software construction and software testing processes). Concurrent execution of several software process activities may produce a shared output (e.g., the interface specifications for interfaces among multiple software components developed by different teams). Some software processes may be regarded as less effective unless other software processes are being performed at the same time (e.g., software test planning during software requirements analysis can improve the software requirements).
2.1 Categories of Software Processes
Many distinct software processes have been defined for use in the various parts of the software development and software maintenance life cycles. These processes can be categorized as follows:
- Primary processes include software processes for development, operation, and
maintenance of software.
- Supporting processes are applied intermittently or continuously throughout a software product life cycle to support primary processes; they include software processes such as configuration management, quality assurance, and verification and validation.
- Organizational processes provide support for software engineering; they include training, process measurement analysis, infrastructure management, portfolio and reuse management, organizational process improvement, and management of software life cycle models.
- Cross-project processes, such as reuse, software product line, and domain engineering; they involve more than a single software project in an organization.
Software processes in addition to those listed above include the following.
Project management processes include processes for planning and estimating, resource management, measuring and controlling, leading, managing risk, managing stakeholders, and coordinating the primary, supporting, organizational, and cross-project processes of software development and maintenance projects.
Software processes are also developed for particular needs, such as process activities that address software quality characteristics (see the Software Quality KA). For example, security concerns during software development may necessitate one or more software processes to protect the security of the development environment and reduce the risk of malicious acts. Software processes may also be developed to provide adequate grounds for establishing confidence in the integrity of the software.
2.2 Software Life Cycle Models
The intangible and malleable nature of software permits a wide variety of software development life cycle models, ranging from linear models in which the phases of software development are accomplished sequentially with feedback and iteration as needed followed by integration, testing, and delivery of a single product; to iterative models in which software is developed in increments of increasing functionality on iterative cycles; to agile models that typically involve frequent demonstrations of working software to a customer or user representative who directs development of the software in short iterative cycles that produce small increments of working, deliverable software. Incremental, iterative, and agile models can deliver early subsets of working software into the user environment, if desired.
Linear SDLC models are sometimes referred to as predictive software development life cycle models, while iterative and agile SDLCs are referred to as adaptive software development life cycle models. It should be noted that various maintenance activities during an SPLC can be conducted using different SDLC models, as appropriate to the maintenance activities.
A distinguishing feature of the various software development life cycle models is the way in which software requirements are managed. Linear development models typically develop a complete set of software requirements, to the extent possible, during project initiation and planning. The software requirements are then rigorously controlled. Changes to the software requirements are based on change requests that are processed by a change control board (see Requesting, Evaluating and Approving Software Changes in the Change Control Board in the Software Configuration Management KA). An incremental model produces successive increments of working, deliverable software based on partitioning of the software requirements to be implemented in each of the increments. The software requirements may be rigorously controlled, as in a linear model, or there may be some flexibility in revising the software requirements as the software product evolves. Agile models may define product scope and high-level features initially; however, agile models are designed to facilitate evolution of the software requirements during the project.
It must be emphasized that the continuum of SDLCs from linear to agile is not a thin, straight line. Elements of different approaches may be incorporated into a specific model; for example, an incremental software development life cycle model may incorporate sequential software requirements and design phases but permit considerable flexibility in revising the software requirements and architecture during software construction.
2.3 Software Process Adaptation
Predefined SDLCs, SPLCs, and individual software processes often need to be adapted (or “tailored”) to better serve local needs. Organizational context, innovations in technology, project size, product criticality, regulatory requirements, industry practices, and corporate culture may determine needed adaptations. Adaptation of individual software processes and software life cycle models (development and product) may consist of adding more details to software processes, activities, tasks, and procedures to address critical concerns. It may consist of using an alternate set of activities that achieves the purpose and outcomes of the software process. Adaptation may also include omitting software processes or activities from a development or product life cycle model that are clearly inapplicable to the scope of work to be accomplished.
2.4 Practical Considerations
In practice, software processes and activities are often interleaved, overlapped, and applied concurrently. Software life cycle models that specify discrete software processes, with rigorously specified entry and exit criteria and prescribed boundaries and interfaces, should be recognized as idealizations that must be adapted to reflect the realities of software development and maintenance within the organizational context and business environment.
Another practical consideration: software processes (such as configuration management, construction, and testing) can be adapted to facilitate operation, support, maintenance, migration, and retirement of the software.
Additional factors to be considered when defining and tailoring a software life cycle model include required conformance to standards, directives, and policies; customer demands; criticality of the software product; and organizational maturity and competencies. Other factors include the nature of the work (e.g., modification of existing software versus new development) and the application domain (e.g., aerospace versus hotel management).
3 Software Process Assessment and Improvement
This topic addresses software process assessment models, software process assessment methods, software process improvement models, and continuous and staged process ratings. Software process assessments are used to evaluate the form and content of a software process, which may be specified by a standardized set of criteria. In some instances, the terms “process appraisal” and “capability evaluation” are used instead of process assessment. Capability evaluations are typically performed by an acquirer (or potential acquirer) or by an external agent on behalf of an acquirer (or potential acquirer). The results are used as an indicator of whether the software processes used by a supplier (or potential supplier) are acceptable to the acquirer. Performance appraisals are typically performed within an organization to identify software processes in need of improvement or to determine whether a process (or processes) satisfies the criteria at a given level of process capability or maturity.
Process assessments are performed at the levels of entire organizations, organizational units within organizations, and individual projects. Assessment may involve issues such as assessing whether software process entry and exit criteria are being met, to review risk factors and risk management, or to identify lessons learned. Process assessment is carried out using both an assessment model and an assessment method. The model can provide a norm for a benchmarking comparison among projects within an organization and among organizations.
A process audit differs from a process assessment. Assessments are performed to determine levels of capability or maturity and to identify software processes to be improved. Audits are typically conducted to ascertain compliance with policies and standards. Audits provide management visibility into the actual operations being performed in the organization so that accurate and meaningful decisions can be made concerning issues that are impacting a development project, a maintenance activity, or a software-related topic.
Success factors for software process assessment and improvement within software engineering organizations include management sponsorship, planning, training, experienced and capable leaders, team commitment, expectation management, the use of change agents, plus pilot projects and experimentation with tools. Additional factors include independence of the assessor and the timeliness of the assessment.
3.1 Software Process Assessment Models
Software process assessment models typically include assessment criteria for software processes that are regarded as constituting good practices. These practices may address software development processes only, or they may also include topics such as software maintenance, software project management, systems engineering, or human resources management.
3.2 Software Process Assessment Methods
A software process assessment method can be qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative assessments rely on the judgment of experts; quantitative assessments assign numerical scores to software processes based on analysis of objective evidence that indicates attainment of the goals and outcomes of a defined software process. For example, a quantitative assessment of the software inspection process might be performed by examining the procedural steps followed and results obtained plus data concerning defects found and time required to find and fix the defects as compared to software testing.
A typical method of software process assessment includes planning, fact-finding (by collecting evidence through questionnaires, interviews, and observation of work practices), collection and validation of process data, and analysis and reporting. Process assessments may rely on the subjective, qualitative judgment of the assessor, or on the objective presence or absence of defined artifacts, records, and other evidence.
The activities performed during a software process assessment and the distribution of effort for assessment activities are different depending on the purpose of the software process assessment. Software process assessments may be undertaken to develop capability ratings used to make recommendations for process improvements or may be undertaken to obtain a process maturity rating in order to qualify for a contract or award.
The quality of assessment results depends on the software process assessment method, the integrity and quality of the obtained data, the assessment team’s capability and objectivity, and the evidence examined during the assessment. The goal of a software process assessment is to gain insight that will establish the current status of a process or processes and provide a basis for process improvement; performing a software process assessment by following a checklist for conformance without gaining insight adds little value.
3.3 Software Process Improvement Models
Software process improvement models emphasize iterative cycles of continuous improvement. A software process improvement cycle typically involves the subprocesses of measuring, analyzing, and changing. The Plan-Do-Check-Act model is a well-known iterative approach to software process improvement. Improvement activities include identifying and prioritizing desired improvements (planning); introducing an improvement, including change management and training (doing); evaluating the improvement as compared to previous or exemplary process results and costs (checking); and making further modifications (acting). The Plan-Do-Check-Act process improvement model can be applied, for example, to improve software processes that enhance defect prevention.
3.4 Continuous and Staged Software Process Ratings
Software process capability and software process maturity are typically rated using five or six levels to characterize the capability or maturity of the software processes used within an organization.
A continuous rating system involves assigning a rating to each software process of interest; a staged rating system is established by assigning the same maturity rating to all of the software processes within a specified process level. A representation of continuous and staged process levels is provided in Table 8.1. Continuous models typically use a level 0 rating; staged models typically do not.
Table 8.1. Software Process Rating Levels | ||
---|---|---|
Level | Continuous Representation of Capability Levels | Staged Representation of Maturity Levels |
0 | Incomplete | |
1 | Performed | Initial |
2 | Managed | Managed |
3 | Defined | Defined |
4 | Quantitatively Managed | |
5 | Optimizing |
In Table 8.1, level 0 indicates that a software
process is incompletely performed or may not be
performed. At level 1, a software process is being
performed (capability rating), or the software
processes in a maturity level 1 group are being
performed but on an ad hoc, informal basis. At
level 2, a software process (capability rating) or
the processes in maturity level 2 are being performed
in a manner that provides management
visibility into intermediate work products and
can exert some control over transitions between
processes. At level 3, a single software process or
the processes in a maturity level 3 group plus the
process or processes in maturity level 2 are well
defined (perhaps in organizational policies and
procedures) and are being repeated across different
projects. Level 3 of process capability or
maturity provides the basis for process improvement
across an organization because the process
is (or processes are) conducted in a similar manner.
This allows collection of performance data
in a uniform manner across multiple projects. At
maturity level 4, quantitative measures can be
applied and used for process assessment; statistical
analysis may be used. At maturity level 5,
the mechanisms for continuous process improvements
are applied.
Continuous and staged representations can be used to determine the order in which software processes are to be improved. In the continuous representation, the different capability levels for different software processes provide a guideline for determining the order in which software processes will be improved. In the staged representation, satisfying the goals of a set of software processes within a maturity level is accomplished for that maturity level, which provides a foundation for improving all of the software processes at the next higher level.
4 Software Measurement
This topic addresses software process and product measurement, quality of measurement results, software information models, and software process measurement techniques (see Measurement in the Engineering Foundations KA).
Before a new process is implemented or a current process is modified, measurement results for the current situation should be obtained to provide a baseline for comparison between the current situation and the new situation. For example, before introducing the software inspection process, effort required to fix defects discovered by testing should be measured. Following an initial start-up period after the inspection process is introduced, the combined effort of inspection plus testing can be compared to the previous amount of effort required for testing alone. Similar considerations apply if a process is changed.
4.1 Software Process and Product Measurement
Software process and product measurement are concerned with determining the efficiency and effectiveness of a software process, activity, or task. The efficiency of a software process, activity, or task is the ratio of resources actually consumed to resources expected or desired to be consumed in accomplishing a software process, activity, or task (see Efficiency in the Software Engineering Economics KA). Effort (or equivalent cost) is the primary measure of resources for most software processes, activities, and tasks; it is measured in units such as person-hours, person-days, staffweeks, or staff-months of effort or in equivalent monetary units—such as euros or dollars.
Effectiveness is the ratio of actual output to expected output produced by a software process, activity, or task; for example, actual number of defects detected and corrected during software testing to expected number of defects to be detected and corrected—perhaps based on historical data for similar projects (see Effectiveness in the Software Engineering Economics KA). Note that measurement of software process effectiveness requires measurement of the relevant product attributes; for example, measurement of software defects discovered and corrected during software testing.
One must take care when measuring product attributes for the purpose of determining process effectiveness. For example, the number of defects detected and corrected by testing may not achieve the expected number of defects and thus provide a misleadingly low effectiveness measure, either because the software being tested is of betterthan- usual quality or perhaps because introduction of a newly introduced upstream inspection process has reduced the remaining number of defects in the software.
Product measures that may be important in determining the effectiveness of software processes include product complexity, total defects, defect density, and the quality of requirements, design documentation, and other related work products.
Also note that efficiency and effectiveness are independent concepts. An effective software process can be inefficient in achieving a desired software process result; for example, the amount of effort expended to find and fix software defects could be very high and result in low efficiency, as compared to expectations.
An efficient process can be ineffective in accomplishing the desired transformation of input work products into output work products; for example, failure to find and correct a sufficient number of software defects during the testing process. Causes of low efficiency and/or low effectiveness in the way a software process, activity, or task is executed might include one or more of the following problems: deficient input work products, inexperienced personnel, lack of adequate tools and infrastructure, learning a new process, a complex product, or an unfamiliar product domain. The efficiency and effectiveness of software process execution are also affected (either positively or negatively) by factors such as turnover in software personnel, schedule changes, a new customer representative, or a new organizational policy.
In software engineering, productivity in performing a process, activity, or task is the ratio of output produced divided by resources consumed; for example, the number of software defects discovered and corrected divided by person-hours of effort (see Productivity in the Software Engineering Economics KA). Accurate measurement of productivity must include total effort used to satisfy the exit criteria of a software process, activity, or task; for example, the effort required to correct defects discovered during software testing must be included in software development productivity.
Calculation of productivity must account for the context in which the work is accomplished. For example, the effort to correct discovered defects will be included in the productivity calculation of a software team if team members correct the defects they find—as in unit testing by software developers or in a cross-functional agile team. Or the productivity calculation may include either the effort of the software developers or the effort of an independent testing team, depending on who fixes the defects found by the independent testers. Note that this example refers to the effort of teams of developers or teams of testers and not to individuals. Software productivity calculated at the level of individuals can be misleading because of the many factors that can affect the individual productivity of software engineers.
Standardized definitions and counting rules for measurement of software processes and work products are necessary to provide standardized measurement results across projects within an organization, to populate a repository of historical data that can be analyzed to identify software processes that need to be improved, and to build predictive models based on accumulated data. In the example above, definitions of software defects and staff-hours of testing effort plus counting rules for defects and effort would be necessary to obtain satisfactory measurement results.
The extent to which the software process is institutionalized is important; failure to institutionalize a software process may explain why “good” software processes do not always produce anticipated results. Software processes may be institutionalized by adoption within the local organizational unit or across larger units of an enterprise.
4.2 Quality of Measurement Results
The quality of process and product measurement results is primarily determined by the reliability and validity of the measured results. Measurements that do not satisfy these quality criteria can result in incorrect interpretations and faulty software process improvement initiatives. Other desirable properties of software measurements include ease of collection, analysis, and presentation plus a strong correlation between cause and effect.
The Software Engineering Measurement topic in the Software Engineering Management KA describes a process for implementing a software measurement program.
4.3 Software Information Models
Software information models allow modeling, analysis, and prediction of software process and software product attributes to provide answers to relevant questions and achieve process and product improvement goals. Needed data can be collected and retained in a repository; the data can be analyzed and models can be constructed. Validation and refinement of software information models occur during software projects and after projects are completed to ensure that the level of accuracy is sufficient and that their limitations are known and understood. Software information models may also be developed for contexts other than software projects; for example, a software information model might be developed for processes that apply across an organization, such as software configuration management or software quality assurance processes at the organizational level.
Analysis-driven software information model building involves the development, calibration, and evaluation of a model. A software information model is developed by establishing a hypothesized transformation of input variables into desired outputs; for example, product size and complexity might be transformed into estimated effort needed to develop a software product using a regression equation developed from observed data from past projects. A model is calibrated by adjusting parameters in the model to match observed results from past projects; for example, the exponent in a nonlinear regression model might be changed by applying the regression equation to a different set of past projects other than the projects used to develop the model. A model is evaluated by comparing computed results to actual outcomes for a different set of similar data. There are three possible evaluation outcomes:
- results computed for a different data set vary widely from actual outcomes for that data set, in which case the derived model is not applicable for the new data set and should not be applied to analyze or make predictions
for future projects;
- results computed for a new data set are close to actual outcomes for that data set, in which case minor adjustments are made to the parameters of the model to improve agreement;
- results computed for the new data set and subsequent data sets are very close and no adjustments to the model are needed.
Continuous evaluation of the model may indicate a need for adjustments over time as the context in which the model is applied changes.
The Goals/Questions/Metrics (GQM) method was originally intended for establishing measurement activities, but it can also be used to guide analysis and improvement of software processes.
It can be used to guide analysis-driven software information model building; results obtained from the software information model can be used to guide process improvement.
The following example illustrates application of the GQM method:
- Goal: Reduce the average change request processing time by 10% within six months.
- Question 1-1: What is the baseline change request processing time?
- Metric 1-1-1: Average of change request processing times on starting date
- Metric 1-1-2: Standard deviation of change request processing times on starting date
- Question 1-2: What is the current change request processing time?
- Metric 1-2-1: Average of change request processing times currently
- Metric 1-2-2: Standard deviation of change request processing times currently
4.4 Software Process Measurement Techniques
Software process measurement techniques are used to collect process data and work product data, transform the data into useful information, and analyze the information to identify process activities that are candidates for improvement. In some cases, new software processes may be needed.
Process measurement techniques also provide the information needed to measure the effects of process improvement initiatives. Process measurement techniques can be used to collect both quantitative and qualitative data.
4.4.1 Quantitative Process Measurement Techniques
The purpose of quantitative process measurement techniques is to collect, transform, and analyze quantitative process and work product data that can be used to indicate where process improvements are needed and to assess the results of process improvement initiatives. Quantitative process measurement techniques are used to collect and analyze data in numerical form to which mathematical and statistical techniques can be applied.
Quantitative process data can be collected as a byproduct of software processes. For example, the number of defects discovered during software testing and the staff-hours expended can be collected by direct measurement, and the productivity of defect discovery can be derived by calculating defects discovered per staff-hour. Basic tools for quality control can be used to analyze quantitative process measurement data (e.g., check sheets, Pareto diagrams, histograms, scatter diagrams, run charts, control charts, and cause-and-effect diagrams) (see Root Cause Analysis in the Engineering Foundations KA). In addition, various statistical techniques can be used that range from calculation of medians and means to multivariate analysis methods (see Statistical Analysis in the Engineering Foundations KA). Data collected using quantitative process measurement techniques can also be used as inputs to simulation models (see Modeling, Prototyping, and Simulation in the Engineering Foundations KA); these models can be used to assess the impact of various approaches to software process improvement.
Orthogonal Defect Classification (ODC) can be used to analyze quantitative process measurement data. ODC can be used to group detected defects into categories and link the defects in each category to the software process or software processes where a group of defects originated (see Defect Characterization in the Software Quality KA). Software interface defects, for example, may have originated during an inadequate software design process; improving the software design process will reduce the number of software interface defects. ODC can provide quantitative data for applying root cause analysis.
Statistical Process Control can be used to track process stability, or the lack of process stability, using control charts.
4.4.2 Qualitative Process Measurement Techniques
Qualitative process measurement techniques— including interviews, questionnaires, and expert judgment—can be used to augment quantitative process measurement techniques. Group consensus techniques, including the Delphi technique, can be used to obtain consensus among groups of stakeholders.
5 Software Engineering Process Tools
Software process tools support many of the notations used to define, implement, and manage individual software processes and software life cycle models. They include editors for notations such as data-flow diagrams, state charts, BPMN, IDEF0 diagrams, Petri nets, and UML activity diagrams. In some cases, software process tools allow different types of analyses and simulations (for example, discrete event simulation). In addition, general purpose business tools, such as a spreadsheet, may be useful.
Computer-Assisted Software Engineering (CASE) tools can reinforce the use of integrated processes, support the execution of process definitions, and provide guidance to humans in performing well-defined processes. Simple tools such as word processors and spreadsheets can be used to prepare textual descriptions of processes, activities, and tasks; these tools also support traceability among the inputs and outputs of multiple software processes (such as stakeholder needs analysis, software requirements specification, software architecture, and software detailed design) as well as the results of software processes such as documentation, software components, test cases, and problem reports.
Most of the knowledge areas in this Guide describe specialized tools that can be used to manage the processes within that KA. In particular, see the Software Configuration Management KA for a discussion of software configuration management tools that can be used to manage the construction, integration, and release processes for software products. Other tools, such as those for requirements management and testing, are described in the appropriate KAs.
Software process tools can support projects that involve geographically dispersed (virtual) teams. Increasingly, software process tools are available through cloud computing facilities as well as through dedicated infrastructures.
A project control panel or dashboard can display selected process and product attributes for software projects and indicate measurements that are within control limits and those needing corrective action.
Software Extension to the Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge® (SWX) [5].
SWX provides adaptations and extensions to the generic practices of project management documented in the PMBOK® Guide for managing software projects. The primary contribution of this extension to the PMBOK® Guide is description of processes that are applicable for managing adaptive life cycle software projects.
D. Gibson, D. Goldenson, and K. Kost, “Performance Results of CMMI-Based Process Improvement” [6].
This technical report summarizes publicly available empirical evidence about the performance results that can occur as a consequence of CMMIbased process improvement. The report contains a series of brief case descriptions that were created with collaboration from representatives from 10 organizations that have achieved notable quantitative performance results through their CMMI-based improvement efforts.
CMMI® for Development, Version 1.3 [7].
CMMI® for Development, Version 1.3 provides an integrated set of process guidelines for developing and improving products and services. These guidelines include best practices for developing and improving products and services to meet the needs of customers and end users.
ISO/IEC 15504-1:2004 Information technology— Process assessment—Part 1: Concepts and vocabulary [8].
This standard, commonly known as SPICE (Software Process Improvement and Capability Determination), includes multiple parts. Part 1 provides concepts and vocabulary for software development processes and related businessmanagement functions. Other parts of 15504 define the requirements and procedures for performing process assessments.
[1] R.E. Fairley, Managing and Leading Software Projects, Wiley-IEEE Computer Society Press, 2009.
[2] J.W. Moore, The Road Map to Software Engineering: A Standards-Based Guide, Wiley-IEEE Computer Society Press, 2006.
[3] I. Sommerville, Software Engineering, 9th ed., Addison-Wesley, 2011.
[4] S.H. Kan, Metrics and Models in Software Quality Engineering, 2nd ed., Addison-Wesley, 2002.
[5] Project Management Institute and IEEE Computer Society, Software Extension to the PMBOK® Guide Fifth Edition, ed:, Project Management Institute, 2013.
[6] D. Gibson, D. Goldenson, and K. Kost, "Performance Results of CMMI-Based Process Improvement", Software Engineering Institute, 2006, http://resources.sei.cmu.edu/library/asset-view.cfm?assetID=8065..
[7] CMMI Product Team, "CMMI for Development, Version 1.3", Software Engineering Institute, 2010, http://resources.sei.cmu.edu/library/asset-view.cfm?assetID=9661.
[8] ISO/IEC 15504-1:2004 Information
Technology—Process Assessment—Part 1:
Concepts and Vocabulary, ISO/IEC, 2004.